Uttamapurisa DīpanīNamo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammāsambuddhassa Homage to the Exalted One, the Worthy One,
The Supremely Enlightened Buddha PreambleI shall answer concisely the nine questions posed by Maung Thaw, Office Clerk of the Inspector of Schools, Mandalay, according to the canonical texts and commentaries, giving my conclusions on doctrinal points. Chapter OneThe petition sent from Mandalay by Maung Thaw on the tenth waxing day of Tabaung, 1261 Burmese Era (9th March, 1900) contained nine questions. The first question was about the perfections: Regarding the five aspirants: (i) a Perfectly Enlightened Buddha (sammāsambuddha), (ii) a Solitary Buddha (paccekabuddha), (iii) a Chief Disciple (aggasāvaka), (iv) a Great Disciple (mahāsāvaka) and, (v) an Ordinary Disciple (pakatisāvaka), how does the aspirant fulfil the perfections (pāramī) to achieve his respective goal?
May I know the definition, nature, and significance of the ten perfections, with particular reference to an aspirant to Supreme Enlightenment? The Perfections DefinedIn answer to the first question, regarding the definition, nature, and significance of the perfections, there are these ten perfections. “Dānaṃ sīlañca nekkhammaṃ
Paññā viriya khantīca
Saccādhiṭṭhāna mettāca
Upekkhā pāramī dasa.” 1) Giving (dāna), 2) morality (sīla), 3) renunciation (nekkhamma), 4) wisdom (paññā), 5) energy (viriya), 6) patience (khanti), 7) truthfulness (sacca), 8) resolve (adhitthāna), 9) loving-kindness (mettā), 10) equanimity (upekkhā).
The Nature of the PerfectionsThe nature of the perfections will be shown by their characteristic (lakkhana), function (rasa), manifestation (paccupatthāna), and proximate cause (padatthāna). The ten perfections are mentioned in the Cariyapitaka Commentary and the Sīlakkhandha Subcommentary.
1. Pariccāgalakkhaṇaṃ dānaṃ,
Deyyadhamma lobhaviddhaṃsanarasaṃ.
Anāsatta paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Pariccajitabba vatthu padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Dāna:
It has the characteristic of generosity; its function is to destroy attachment to things by giving them away; it is manifested as non-attachment to things given away; its proximate cause is something in hand that would serve as a gift. 2. Sīlanalakkhaṇaṃ sīlaṃ,
Dussīlya viddhaṃsanarasaṃ.
Soceyya paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Hirī-ottappa padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Sīla: It has the characteristic of keeping good bodily and verbal actions; its function is to destroy unwholesome or unruly bodily or verbal actions; it is manifested as purity of verbal actions; its proximate causes are moral shame (hirī) and moral dread (ottappa). 3. Kāmato bhavatoca, nikkhamanalakkhaṇaṃ nekkhammaṃ.
Kāmabhavādīnavavibhāvanarasaṃ,
Tasseva vimukhabhāva paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Saṃvega padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Nekkhamma:
Its characteristic is renouncing sensuality and thereby gaining release from becoming; its function is to purify and thus reveal the dangers of sensuality and of existence; it is manifested as avoidance of sensual desires; its proximate cause is a dread of sensuality through farsighted trepidation. 4. Yathā sabhāva paṭivedhalakkhaṇā paññā,
Visayobhāsanarasā.
Asammoha paccupaṭṭhānā,
Samādhi padaṭṭhānā.
Paññā: It has the characteristic of seeing things in their true nature; its function is to shed light on all objects of sense; it is manifested as non-confusion; its proximate cause is concentration. 5. Ussāhalakkhaṇaṃ viriyaṃ,
Upatthambhanarasaṃ.
Asaṃsīdana paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Saṃvega padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Viriya:
It has the characteristic of diligence; its function is to brace one up; it is manifested as persistence; its proximate cause is a sense of urgency arising from farsighted trepidation of birth, decay, sickness, death, and all attendant ills. 6. Khamanalakkhaṇā khanti,
Iṭṭhāniṭṭha sahanarasā.
Adhivāsana paccupaṭṭhānā,
Yathābhūtadassana padaṭṭhānā.
Khanti: It has the characteristic of tolerance; its function is not to be moved by likes or dislikes; it is manifested as forbearance in the face of the gravest provocation; its proximate cause is seeing things as they really are. 7. Avisaṃvādanalakkhaṇaṃ saccaṃ,
Yathāvavibhāvanarasaṃ.
Sādhutā paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Soracca padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Sacca: It has the characteristic of not misleading others by one’s utterance; its function is to discover the truth as one sees or knows; it is manifested as sweet and agreeable speech; its proximate cause is a sympathetic tenderness towards all. 8. Bodhisambhāresu avaṭṭhāna lakkhaṇaṃ adhiṭṭhānaṃ,
Tesaṃ paṭipakkhābhibhavana rasaṃ.
Tattha acalatā paccupaṭṭhānaṃ,
Bodhisambhāra padaṭṭhānaṃ.
Adhitthāna:
It has the characteristic of resolve in undertaking meritorious deeds for fulfilling the perfections; its function is to overcome all opposition and obstacles that lie in one’s path; it is manifested as firmness in one’s stand; its proximate cause lies in those very meritorious deeds, such as generosity, when one is practising for perfections. 9. Hitākārappavatti lakkhaṇā mettā,
Hitūpasaṃhāra rasā.
Sommābhāva paccupaṭṭhānā,
Sattānaṃ manāpabhāva dassana padaṭṭhānā.
Mettā: It has the characteristic of promoting the welfare of others; its function is being solicitous of others’ welfare; it is manifested as a helpful attitude; its proximate cause is seeing only the good of others. 10. Majjhattākārappavatti lakkhaṇā upekkhā,
Samabhāvadassana rasā.
Paṭighānunaya vūpasama paccupaṭṭhānā,
Kammassakatā paccavekkhaṇā padaṭṭhānā.
Upekkhā:
It has the characteristic of equanimity in the face of praise and blame; its function is to neutralize one’s emotions; it is manifested as impartiality; its proximate cause is the reflective knowledge of one’s own past actions. Dependent and Non-Dependent PerfectionsThe ten perfections can be classed as either dependent or non-dependent. Dependent perfections may be either dependent on craving or dependent on wrong views. “Something carried out with a desire for a glorious future existence is said to be done dependent on craving. Something carried out in the mistaken belief that
purification of defilements is achieved through morality is said to be done dependent on wrong views.” (Visuddhimagga)
A deed of merit done with a desire for existence in a higher plane or glorious existence is dependent on craving and is not development of perfections. Here, wishing for human existence to fulfil the perfections, as in the cases of the bodhisattas Campeyya and
Saṅkhapāla, the two Nāga Kings, cannot be called dependent. Some people think, “The practices of charity and morality, or merely taking up the life of an ascetic, are sufficient in themselves for the removal of defilements; no further practice exists.” They regard their view as perfect. They sometimes acquire merit, but they totally disregard the need for insight knowledge leading to
the path and its fruition. Their merit is dependent on wrong views and does not count as a fulfilment of perfections. Theirs is the type of merit sought after by fakirs. These two kinds of dependent merit keep one trapped in the cycle of rebirth. They are not called perfections. Two Classes of Non-Dependent Merits“There is such a thing as supramundane merit, there is also mundane merit which serves as a seed for supramundane merit.” (Visuddhimagga)
Since Maung Thaw’s question relates to merit that contributes to the perfections, supramundane merit need not be discussed; only non-dependent mundane types of merit or
mundane merit as the basis for the supramundane need be discussed here. Only volitional activities such as giving, morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, resolve, loving-kindness, and equanimity, carried out with a pure mind and not bent towards a glorious existence hereafter, nor inspired by mistaken views, but aimed squarely at the “yonder shore” of
enlightenment, as detached as the open sky, are merits that amount to fulfilling the perfections. These days it is quite common to hear such prayers as: “May we attain nibbāna; for such time as we might not have attained nibbāna, for that time may we be...” and so on. Such are the prayers a donor makes at his or her offering ceremony, aspiring for ever higher and more magnificent
existences and a grand vista of worldly attainments in words every bit as pompous as those the head of the Sangha uses when he administers the prayers during the water-pouring ceremony. The result is that the word “nibbāna” is heard as a mere faint sound drowned by a welter of mundane wishes. Furthermore, it is the mundane aspect of the prayers that seems to have the most appeal. For we have such a splendid range of those wishing words, and what eloquence! In fact it was to discourage
that sort of cat-scratching merit that the emphatic article eva (only) is used in the passage referred to above: tasseva = tassa + eva (“that only is”). Only that kind of mundane merit is what the Buddha approves of. Q Would you regard those deeds where the donor wishes for nibbāna, with other mundane attainments, as meritorious deeds? A Yes. However, I would say that those types of merit do not help to quicken the time to enlightenment.
Let me illustrate with a few relevant examples. In the dark ages (i.e. when the Buddha’s teaching had fallen silent) before the coming of Vipassī Buddha there lived two brothers who were sugarcane planters. The younger of them was to become Jotika, the celebrated rich man. They offered
sugarcane juice to a Solitary Buddha. The elder brother, in making his wishes for the merit that would accrue from the gift, said, “May I know the Dhamma that the Solitary Buddha has known.” The younger brother also said the same thing, and something more. He added his wishes for glorious existence — two common mundane wishes. The elder brother gained enlightenment at the earliest encounter with a Buddha, in this case Buddha Vipassī. As for the younger brother, because his desire was
not “nibbāna specific” but went off at a tangent, he missed his chance for enlightenment under the teaching of Vipassī Buddha. He attained release from existence only under the teaching of Gotama Buddha, after having missed the teachings of six Buddhas. The moral of the story is this: when you are doing some meritorious deed, do not let craving for future well-being enter your mind. If
you allow it, your wishes are bound to become your shackles. For the greater your well-being, the stronger your craving is likely to be, so that you find yourself dilly-dallying when the opportunity for enlightenment comes. If you aspire just for supramundane merit unencumbered by mundane wishes, then you can probably forsake worldly glories when you hear the Dhamma. So, Maung Thaw, you should remember that when you aspire for human existence it should be only to fulfil the perfections, which
are required for enlightenment. However, don’t ever let your wishes wander away to mundane attainments or well-being. There is also the story of Puṇṇa, a householder servant of Meṇḍaka the rich man, who had strong attachment to existence as his master’s trusted servant. So, when he wished for the result of his offering to a Solitary Buddha, he opted for service under his good
master in his future existences! Of course his wish was fulfilled — he became his master’s servant throughout their remaining existences together. When Cūḷa Subhaddā, the consort of the King of Elephants (the bodhisatta), wished for the result of offering fruits to a Solitary Buddha, she sought revenge on her husband for an imagined slight she had suffered. Her desire was fulfilled
in her next existence as a human queen when she successfully plotted the death of her husband of the previous existence. This spiteful deed sent her down to hell. Kusa, the bodhisatta, and his consort, Pabhāvatī, both made offerings to a Solitary Buddha in one of their past existences. They had to go through a series of mishaps together because they made discordant wishes. These are only a few instances of the life stories of misdirected aspiration while doing a deed of merit. Such stories abound in the Jātakas and in history and folklore. A lot depends on one’s mentor too. In the life story of Vidhura, the wise counsellor, we find that of four rich men who offered food to four recluses of supernormal attainments in jhānic powers, one became a Nāga and one a Garuda,
one became a great king and one became Sakka (king of Tāvatiṃsa heaven). This is because the first two were given bad counsel from their respective teachers. So, one must take great care in choosing a mentor; bad counsel can bring bitter consequences for one’s actions quite undeservedly. Low, Medium, and Superior Grades of MeritFor each of the ten meritorious practices such as giving, morality, renunciation, etc., there can be three grades: low, medium, or superior. “A deed undertaken out of desire for fame is low. One undertaken with desire for the fruits of merit is moderate. One undertaken with the clear understanding that it is the
custom of the Noble Ones is superior.” (Visuddhimagga)
Of the above three grades, the first is done for vanity, all for show. It hardly brings any merit that could result in future well-being, let alone fulfil any perfections. The second is motivated by desire for merit. Usually it is done with discrimination since the donor selects the most worthy recipient whenever possible to
gain the greatest merit. This kind of deed brings ample results in the mundane spheres, but still does not amount to fulfilling a perfection. The third case is where one sets one’s mind on the deed alone, not on its consequences. The donor is guided by a true sense of charity. In fact, one is prepared to share any of one’s possessions with others, for one has no attachment to them. One rightly follows the practice of the Noble Ones. One does not choose to whom to give. Let anyone come,
whether good, bad, or average, one would make some kind of gift. This kind of giving is following the custom of the Noble Ones. It is truly a practice for the perfection of giving. The same spirit of considering the deed alone, and not its rewards, governs the remaining perfections such as morality, renunciation, wisdom, energy, patience, truthfulness, etc. Another way of classifying virtue is as follows:
“Virtue observed out of craving for glorious existences and material well-being is inferior; virtue observed for one’s own release is moderate; virtue observed to liberate all beings, which is the perfection of virtue, is superior.” (Visuddhimagga)
Release from the cycle of birth
and death, and release from the mundane attainments of glorious existences, mean the same thing. The second grade is regarded as inferior because it falls short of being a practice for perfections. Observance for the sake of one’s own release is the perfection practised by the Solitary Buddhas and ordinary disciples. Observance for the liberation of all beings is the perfection practised by Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas. The Perfections ExplainedI shall now explain the meaning of each of the ten perfections: 1. Dāna:
Giving, making a gift or offering. Sharing one’s wealth unstintingly with virtuous disciples of the Buddha is called sharing, or the practice of common ownership. The bodhisatta’s practice of making gifts to anyone, virtuous, unvirtuous, or moderately virtuous, has already been mentioned. It means that anyone who calls at one’s door for alms receives them. Herein, “virtuous disciples” means special people who deserve the enjoyment of one’s wealth because they will share the knowledge of the Dhamma. With respect to such good people, sharing should take the form of respectful offerings after careful preparation.
2. Sīla: There are two kinds of morality; avoidance of the three bodily misdeeds and the four verbal misdeeds (vārittasīla); and cultivating virtuous habits (cārittasīla). The latter means paying respect (apacāyana) to the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, and to parents, teachers, and those senior in age, status, or morality; or helping anyone with a meritorious deed as if it were one’s own undertaking (veyyāvacca).
3. Nekkhamma:
Renunciation is undertaken with a strong volition of non-greed, therefore it is a meritorious deed. Even if a householder strives to dispel greed by contemplating the repulsiveness of the body or the loathsomeness of food, it amounts to renunciation, which is meritorious. If one can do more, one may go to a solitary retreat for the same purpose. If one can go a step further, one may become a recluse or, still better, a bhikkhu. Even better, one may take up the practice of concentration and gain the first jhāna. Better than this, one may develop insight to attain the path of non-returning. All these are the meritorious deeds of renunciation.
4. Paññā:
Wisdom is of two kinds, mundane and supramundane. Learning the Tipitaka, and teaching it to others, undertaken to fulfil the perfection of wisdom, is supramundane. Teaching others the harmless sciences of astrology, incantations, recitation of verses, medicine, science; or the arts, such as mechanics, mathematics, painting, sculpture, metalwork, masonry, gold-smithery, ironmongery, etc., or honest ways of trade and agriculture and all such blameless vocations, are mundane. All these three categories, if imparted to others in a noble spirit as “perfection directed” acts, are the practice of the perfection of wisdom.
5. Viriya: Energy is supreme if it conforms to the four right efforts (sammappadāna). Besides this, exerting one’s utmost strength with a pure motive to help others, whether one is capable or not, also amounts to the perfection of energy. 6. Khanti:
Patience is tolerating others and bearing unpleasant experiences such as cold and heat. The Buddha says, “Bearing the severity of cold, or bearing the severity of heat, thus one has patience.” The Buddha goes on to explain patience in various other ways. The underlying quality of patience is placidity in the face of internal or external unpleasant experiences, coupled with fortitude. A man of patience does not allow anyone or anything “to put the grit in the machine.” “Come wind, come foul weather,” he goes about his meritorious routine, not with hedonistic indifference, but with an imperturbable heart, devoid of ill-will. The presence of such a tolerant frame of mind is patience.
7. Sacca: Truthfulness means avoidance of untruth and falsehood under all circumstances. 8. Adhitthāna: Resolve is the firmness of one’s stand after one has committed oneself to something, whether expressed or not. 9. Mettā: Loving-kindness means wishing others well, with a heart filled with goodwill towards any being that one comes across. 10. Upekkhā:
Equanimity is the quality of being strictly impartial to both well-wishers and adversaries alike. One does not behave partially towards one’s benefactors. Neither does one harbour any resentment towards one’s detractors. This evenness of attitude toward both the kind and the unkind is the essence of equanimity. Here are a few similes to drive home the significance of the perfections.
Patience and equanimity are the mainstay for the other perfections. Only when one has established these two can one expect to fulfil the rest. Just as a newborn infant can only survive with the care of its parents, the remaining eight perfections can only be fulfilled under the constant care of patience and equanimity. Patience may be likened to the mother and equanimity to the father. If
patience and equanimity are present, and the other good deeds are forthcoming under their benign influence, if there is an absence of renunciation, these good deeds will not properly become perfections. Lacking the guidance of renunciation, one is liable to be overcome by attachment to the merit derived from them and yearn for mundane benefits. Then the meritorious deeds merely prolong rebirth because they are dependent on existence. They do not then qualify as perfections. Therefore, if
patience and equanimity are the parents, renunciation should be called the family doctor who takes care of the child’s health. To employ a different simile: all vegetation depends on soil and water for its survival; both must be favourable. Similarly, patience provides the favourable soil, and equanimity the favourable water, for the remaining perfections. Equanimity in the present context is slightly different from the equanimity of the four divine abidings (brahmavihāra), which signifies impartiality to the welfare of all beings (different from being uninterested). Equanimity as perfection is evenness of mind regarding one who worships you and one who condemns or persecutes you and, further, being able to seek the welfare of both. How the Perfections are Practised TogetherIn one of the innumerable existences of the bodhisatta, he was born as a monkey chieftain. A brahmin lost his way in the forest and fell into a chasm that was as deep as the height of a hundred men. Seeing his plight, the bodhisatta took pity on him and
exerted himself to rescue him. Eventually, the brahmin was carried up onto safe ground. The bodhisatta was, by then, quite exhausted, so he fell asleep, unsuspectingly, on the brahmin’s lap. The brahmin thought to himself, “I’ve earned nothing today. My wife is going to be upset when I get home. What a delightful idea if I were to bring home monkey flesh. How pleased my wife would be!” Satisfied with his “bright idea,” the brahmin took up a stone lying nearby and dealt a blow to
the monkey’s head. It was such a vicious blow that blood gushed out of the wound in all directions. Stupefied and covered in blood, the bodhisatta leapt up into a tree. He could not believe that such a thing could happen! “Oh, there are such people in this world.” Then the thought came to his mind how to lead the man home safely, for the forest was full of leopards, tigers, and other dangerous animals. He said to the brahmin, “Now you should be starting for home. I must show you the
way out of this forest, but I cannot trust you. You can follow the trail of my blood as I jump from tree to tree.” So, in this way the brahmin got home safely. In this Jātaka it will be seen that loving-kindness was the first of the ten perfections that the bodhisatta practised. When he saw the plight of the brahmin he took pity on him as if he were his own son and started thinking of how
to save him. Assessing the situation and devising a plan to take the brahmin out from the chasm was wisdom. Executing the plan at great risk to himself, and using all his strength, was the practice of energy. In bearing the deadly injury that had broken his skull, without getting angry, he exercised great patience. Without it he would have left the ungrateful man, thereby rendering all his efforts futile. Not allowing himself to be overcome by anger for such a wicked deed was the practice of
equanimity. Had he not been firm in the practice of equanimity, he might have left off there, and the heartless brahmin would not have survived long. Indeed the two principal perfections of patience and equanimity saw through the whole undertaking. Saving the brahmin from such a deep chasm at the risk of his life amounted to sacrifice of his life or generosity. Again, saving the brahmin’s
life was the gift of life. Not even uttering a curse, and never raising his hand to strike back, constituted morality. In doing this noble deed the bodhisatta never thought about the merit he would gain. That was renunciation, the ability to forsake all forms of existence. For attachment to a better life hereafter is generally strong enough to spoil the perfection of renunciation. By not going back on his word to save the brahmin, the bodhisatta accomplished truthfulness — not very easy to
keep under the circumstances. Lastly, fulfilling his commitment without wavering in spite of the brahmin’s shocking treatment, was resolve. This was how the bodhisatta successfully practised the ten perfections in a single undertaking. Regarding your particular interest in the aspiration to Buddhahood, this is a fairly wide subject. The detailed process of laying the foundation for the
aspiration to, and the fulfilment of, Perfect Enlightenment is dealt with in the scriptures in fifteen catechisms. Only a brief account will be given here. For a wider knowledge on it, please see the Cariyāpiṭaka Commentary and the Sīlakkhandha Subcommentary. The Three Grades of PerfectionsI shall now outline the ten ordinary perfections, the ten higher perfections, and the ten supreme perfections. All external objects such as a wife and children, animate and inanimate things, belonging to a person, are the objects through which the ten ordinary perfections are fulfilled. One’s own limbs or head or any organs of
the body are the objects through which the ten higher perfections are fulfilled. One’s own life (being sacrificed) is the object through which the ten supreme perfections are fulfilled. Of those three categories of objects, undertakings that forsake the first category are called ordinary perfections. Undertakings that forsake the second are called higher perfections. Those that forsake the
third, i.e. one’s own life, are called supreme perfections. One who can fulfil only the first ten attains the enlightenment of a Noble Disciple. One who can fulfil only the first ten and the second ten attains the enlightenment of a Solitary Buddha. One who can fulfil all thirty attains Supreme Self-Enlightenment. The Three Types of Disciples’ EnlightenmentThere are three classes of enlightenment of a Noble Disciple: (i) an Ordinary Noble Disciple’s, (ii) a Great Disciple’s, and (iii) a Chief Disciple’s. By fulfilling the first ten perfections for one aeon and a hundred thousand
world cycles, one can attain the enlightenment of a Chief Disciple. By the Chief Disciples are meant the Buddha’s two principal Noble Disciples like the Venerables Sāriputta and Moggallāna for Gotama Buddha. By fulfilling the same perfections for a hundred thousand world cycles, one can attain the enlightenment of a Great Disciple. By the Great Disciples are meant the distinguished Noble
Ones, numbering eighty for Buddha Gotama. There is no mention of the duration for the maturity of an ordinary Noble Disciple. One has to infer it from such statements as are found in certain commentaries. In a commentary on the Arahants’ supernormal power of recollecting former existences, an ordinary Noble One is said to be able to recall existences from a hundred to a thousand world
cycles. This has generally been taken as the maturity period for an ordinary Noble Disciple. Once, a frog was accidentally killed while listening with rapt attention to the mellifluous voice of the Buddha preaching. He was reborn as a deva from the merit of listening attentively to the Dhamma (even though he did not understand its meaning). Immediately, he came to pay homage to the Buddha,
listened to his discourse, and gained stream-winning. In his next existence he became an Arahant. From this story we can see that there are just a few forms of existence in which a disciple’s enlightenment is attained. Regarding the Chief and Great Disciples, the periods for maturity stated earlier refer only to the periods after these Noble Ones had received formal recognition by a living
Buddha. The Buddha predicts when, where, and under what circumstances he will attain which type of enlightenment. This is called “receiving assurance (vyākaranam). The scriptures are silent on the duration for fulfilling the perfections before such recognition or assurance. The interval between the arising of any two Buddhas is beyond reckoning. It may be any number of world
cycles. A Noble Disciple (as the term signifies) can arise only when a Buddha arises or his teaching is extant. So it is important to remember that those durations mentioned above refer only to those Noble Ones who encountered Gotama Buddha. As to the Noble Disciples: in the commentary on the Suttanipāta there are three types: (i) one who depends on confidence for his enlightenment,
(ii) one who depends on diligence, and (iii) one who depends on wisdom. The Three Types of Solitary EnlightenmentSimilarly, Solitary Enlightenment (paccekabodhi) is also of three types. The commentaries say that the enlightenment of a Solitary Buddha is attained after fulfilling the ten perfections and the ten higher perfections for two aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles.
The Three Types of Perfect EnlightenmentThe Perfect Enlightenment of a Buddha is also of these three types, which are also called: (i) ugghātitaññūbodhi, (ii) vipañcitaññūbodhi, and (iii) ñeyyabodhi respectively.
A Buddha who depends on wisdom for his enlightenment, after receiving assurance, has to fulfil the ten perfections, the ten higher perfections, and the ten supreme perfections for four aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles. A Buddha who depends on diligence must fulfil the perfections for
eight aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles. A Buddha who depends on confidence must fulfil the perfections for sixteen aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles. This is what has been recorded in the ancient commentaries. However, there are differing views regarding the maturity
periods for the three types of Buddhas. They are found in later works such as the Apadāna Commentary and in subcommentaries such as Sotattakī, Tathāgatuppatti, Mahāvamstīkā, etc. On this controversial subject an analogy given by the commentator on the Suttanipāta is worth noting. He says that trees and plants require a certain time before they can flower or bear fruit. Trees like the
tamarind or the jack-fruit tree will not mature to blossom or bear fruit in one, two, or three years however carefully one nurtures them, even by watering a hundred times a day. Similarly, with the fulfilment of the prerequisites for Buddhahood. Let one give daily offerings on the scale of King Vessantara to fulfil the perfections, one cannot attain Buddhahood any sooner. The periods for
maturity necessarily vary for each of the three types of Buddhas (see the Suttanipāta Commentary). The Noblest AspirationWhat is meant by the Noblest Aspiration (mahābhinīhāra) should be understood. The foundation (mūla), condition (paccaya), and the root cause (hetu) of the Noblest Aspiration should be understood. Mahābodhi should be understood. Its foundation, condition, and root cause should be understood.
What is meant by “the Noblest Aspiration”? It is the verbal and mental undertaking that the bodhisatta had made at some point of time aeons before taking up the perfections. It was made in these terms: “As a man who knows his own strength, what use is there to get to ‘the yonder shore’ (nibbāna) alone? I will attain to Supreme Knowledge and then convey men and devas to the yonder shore.”
That was the pledge that sent the ten thousand universes reeling and echoing in applause. That was the bodhisatta’s earnest
wish. For he intensely aspired to Supreme Self-Enlightenment thus: “Knowing the Truth, I will let others know it. Freeing myself from the world, I will free others. Having crossed over, I will enable others to cross.” This fervent and most daring aspiration is called “the Noblest Aspiration.”
Eight Factors Needed for the Noblest AspirationFor the Noblest Aspiration to materialize, eight factors must be present: “Manussattaṃ liṅgasampatti, hetu satthāradassanaṃ.
Pabbajjā guṇasampatti, adhikāroca chandatā.
Aṭṭhadhammasamodhānā, abhinīhāro samijjhati.”
(Aṭṭhasālinī; Buddhavaṃsa.) The aspirant must be a human being (manussattam). He must be a man (lingasampatti).
His spiritual maturity must be sufficient to attain Arahantship if he chose to (root-condition, hetu). He must have met a living Buddha (satthāradassanam). He must have taken up the life of a recluse or a monk (pabbajjā). He must have attained supernormal powers through concentration (gunasampatti). He must have made the utmost homage (adhikāro) to the “Three Gems” while aspiring to Buddhahood.
He must have a most ardent will to become a Buddha (chandatā).
If all eight factors are present the Noblest Aspiration materializes. Herein “root-condition” means the four conditions (paccaya) and the four root causes (hetu), which will be explained a little later.
Adhikāro means offerings, including his own life. Chanda
means a burning desire amounting to will or resolve, a preparedness for any eventuality. For example, suppose the entire universe was covered with sharp-pointed spikes, and suppose it was certain one could attain Buddhahood only by crossing it, the bodhisatta would never hesitate to cross it. Or suppose this universe was filled with glowing charcoal, the bodhisatta would not have wavered. These
are the illustrations given in the commentaries. In the commentary on the Khadiraṅgāra Jātaka, it is said that if the bodhisatta tried to cross, those steel spikes would turn into a vast stretch of rubies (in respectful recognition of his sincerity and resolve). Likewise, the burning charcoal would turn into a sea of lotus flowers. Of those eight opportune factors, the ardent wish of a
Solitary Buddha is attended by three factors: (i) meeting with a living Buddha, (ii) making the utmost reverence while declaring the wish for Solitary Buddhahood, and (iii) the will to become a Solitary Buddha. For the enlightenment of a disciple three factors are needed: (i) meeting with a Solitary Buddha or an Arahant, (ii) making the utmost reverence while making
the wish for the enlightenment of a disciple, and (iii) the will to become an Arahant. The Two Root-ConditionsRoot-condition, the third factor of the eight, means a bodhisatta aspiring to Buddhahood must be spiritually mature. When aspiring for
Buddhahood in the presence of the Buddha, to receive the assurance he must have sufficient perfections to attain Solitary Buddhahood or Arahantship. He must then possess two further qualifications: Karuāsampatti — great compassion, Upāyakosallasampatti — skilful means.
Only when these two are present will a bodhisatta be duly recognized by the Buddha from whom he is to receive the assurance. By great compassion is meant great kindness and compassion for
others that takes precedence over his own life. “Skilful means” is the genius that is equal to the task whenever he undertakes to help others. Literally, it is the “attainment of special aptitude in strategy.” These two are the conditions for the (now specific) undertaking of the perfections that will suffice for the declaration of the Noblest Aspiration. The Four ConditionsThere are four further conditions (paccaya), also called the four stages of maturity (Buddhabhūmi), necessary to qualify as a bodhisatta: Ussāha — exceptional energy; Ummanga — a keen intellect; Avatthāna — steadfastness of purpose; Hitacariyā — compassion, loving-kindness for others, even outweighing one’s own welfare.
The Four Root CausesThere are four root causes: 1) attainment of sufficient perfections (upanissayasampatti), 2) attainment of compassion (karunajjhāsayasampatti), 3) attainment of fortitude (avihaññasampatti), and 4) attainment of good friendship (kalyānamittasampatti).
1. Attainment of sufficient perfections means having sufficient perfections to attain Arahantship or Solitary Buddhahood at the time of the assurance. 2. Attainment of compassion is the endowment with a compassionate heart or universal loving-kindness. 3. Attainment of fortitude is a natural disposition for helping others. It is the abiding disposition that never tires in fulfilling the perfections. A luxurious life in the celestial realms is boring to a bodhisatta because it does not offer any opportunity to fulfil the perfections, particularly in serving others. Literally, avihañña means “never being vexed.” It also implies spiritedness. The duration necessary for the maturity of the perfections ranges from four aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles to sixteen aeons and a hundred thousand world cycles, yet the spirit of a bodhisatta is such that he feels he is going to reach maturity the next day. In other words, he is already anticipating Buddhahood that is forthcoming only at the end of such staggering periods. No duration is too long for him to wait.
4. Attainment of good friendship is care and respect in attending to the wise in all his existences, whether human or celestial. The Natural Inclinations of a BodhisattaA bodhisatta is further endowed with six natural inclinations: Inclination to non-greed — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in greed; Inclination to non-hatred — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in hatred or anger;
Inclination to non-delusion — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in delusion; Inclination to renunciation — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in sensuality; Inclination to seclusion — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in socializing; Inclination to escape from the cycle of rebirth — a bodhisatta instinctively sees the danger in existence.
The Significance of the Natural InclinationsJust as the pith makes a tree durable, the six inclinations make a bodhisatta durable or steadfast. One who has these six inclinations, though living in the world, is like a water-container made of a dried gourd, which has no mouth, immersed in deep water. A person lacking them is like an earthen water pot with a wide
mouth immersed in deep water. Even among lay people there are those in whom these six inclinations are present. They are like a water-gourd immersed in deep water. On the other hand, even among bhikkhus, there are those who lack these six inclinations. They are like a wide-mouthed water pot immersed in shallow water. The sensuous world of lay people is like deep water; the favourable facilities that the bhikkhus enjoy, such as secure monasteries, well-made furniture, fine utensils, and
nutritious food, etc., are like shallow water. 1. Those who have no inclination to non-greed do not like to listen to talk on dispelling greed. Even trifling possessions oppress them like a heavy mountain. To those having a strong inclination to non-greed, the glories of a Universal Monarch are not worth a straw. 2. Those who have no inclination to non-hatred do not like to listen to advice on dispelling anger. The slightest provocation will infuriate them, just like a spark falling on dry grass or leaves. However, those firm in their inclination to non-hatred soon dispel any anger, even if they are wronged by a gross injustice, just as a fire brand that falls on a stack of green timber does not start a fire. 3. Those who have no inclination to non-delusion do not like to listen to talk on wisdom. They never see even a glimmer of the light of the Dhamma, which has a luminosity of eighty-four thousand candlepower, so to speak. They are shrouded in dark delusion regarding the real nature of the five aggregates. Living in darkness, they die in the dark and let one existence after another go to waste. The darkness of their delusion
is just like congenital blindness. How could one born blind ever see light even if eighty-four thousand suns were to shine forth together? 4. Those who have no inclination to renunciation do not like to listen to talk on the advantages of renouncing worldly life. Their attachment to the fruit of their meritorious deeds such as giving, virtue, or keeping the eight precepts, prevents those
deeds from becoming perfections. Attachment corrupts them just as fungus spoils the choicest seeds set apart for cultivation, or as viruses, locusts, and other pests render a well-planted field infertile. 5. Those who have no inclination to seclusion do not like to listen to advice on seeking a solitary life in the forest. They are unable to tear themselves away from society for a quiet
moment alone. Desire for companionship always pulls them into shallow friendships and ensures that they remain there, like a prisoner guarded by jailors. 6. Those who have no inclination to escape from the cycle of rebirth do not like to listen to advice on the emptiness of worldly life. They are under the serfdom of attachment to existence. That attachment does not allow them to aspire
after the higher practice of the Dhamma leading to path knowledge. Instead, it keeps them satisfied with their parochial interests such as throwing lavish feasts, building pagodas, or donating monasteries and rest-houses. They are content with keeping the precepts, or remaining as devout laity, or as recluses or bhikkhus with virtue, or with some shallow achievement like teaching the Dhamma or writing books. These are only merits that hold them fast to the world, the wholesome kamma that
prolongs existence. It is like the British Raj, which allowed their colonial subjects to enter freely into small businesses but would not tolerate any dealing with weapons, for fear of rebellion. Herein, two kinds of attachment to existence should be known: yearning for some better existence hereafter, and a fond attachment to the present existence. The present existence offers a precious
chance to attain nibbāna. The Tipiṭaka abounds in practical instructions showing the way to nibbāna. It is only because so-called Buddhists are enamoured of the present existence, and are pampering their little bodies, that they fight shy of the stringent discipline demanded to gain enlightenment. It is a pity they cannot gain even some concentration, which recluses of ancient times gained without the benefit of the Buddha’s teaching. The Four Special Characteristics of a BodhisattaI shall now deal with the four special characteristics of a bodhisatta that distinguish him from a future Solitary Buddha. They are glaringly obvious as if they were garlands around his neck. 1. Indriya — the five controlling faculties. Unshakable confidence (saddhā), indefatigable diligence (viriya), unwavering mindfulness (sati), steadfast concentration (samādhi), and unerring wisdom (paññā) are the first mark that distinguishes a bodhisatta. 2. Patipatti
— the practice. A bodhisatta is always out to help others and places the welfare of others before his own. He never expects any return for the efforts he makes for others’ welfare. Nor will he care to mention them, whether in his beneficiary’s presence or not. Even if the beneficiary “bites the hand that feeds,” a bodhisatta never turns back from any good deed. This holds true even when his life is in imminent danger. This is the bodhisatta’s sense of wishing well for the present. Regarding merits accruing from his noble deeds in giving or in cultivating virtue, etc., a bodhisatta sets his sights higher than the solitary attainment of nibbāna. He aims only at supreme enlightenment, by which he can show the way to nibbāna. This is a bodhisatta’s practice for the hereafter. This twofold practice also distinguishes a bodhisatta.
3. Kosalla — proficiency. This is manifested in sound reasoning (cintāmayañāna) and presence of mind (tankhauppattiñāna) that never fail him. Though the future disciples or Solitary Buddhas also have these two intellectual qualities to a high degree, they are liable to err occasionally. With the bodhisatta, these two qualities are unerring. This is the proficiency of a bodhisatta that makes him unique among other aspirants to enlightenment.
4. Ajjhāsaya
— inclination. The texts treat this subject quite comprehensively concerning the perfections, but I shall describe it only briefly. Regarding giving, for example, a bodhisatta is very happy in making gifts. Whenever he has something to offer as a gift and a recipient is not available, he feels frustrated. Whenever he gives, he gives it with a light heart, and takes proper care in doing so. No amount of giving would satisfy his zeal for charity. Whenever anybody asks anything of him, he does not judge him by class or creed but always complies gladly. In doing so, he never thinks of his own needs but gives to satisfy the other’s needs only. Refer to the Buddhavamsa on this, particularly the passage beginning: “Yathāpi kumbho sampunno...”
In that passage, which is from the chapter on the perfection of generosity, “inclination” is described thus: “As when one overturns a large cooking pot filled with oil or buttermilk to empty it, not a drop or even the dregs remain, but runs out of the pot, so also when a bodhisatta
makes an offering... Whether the beggar is a filthy blockhead of a labourer with bovine instincts, or a drunkard, or better than them, a man who has taken refuge in the Three Gems, or one who keeps the five precepts; or in brief, whether he is good, average, or bad, let him come for alms at any time, the bodhisatta never judges what type of fellow he is, or whether it is worth giving him so much or anything at all; but never discriminating, never hesitating, [he gives freely].”
Of the different classes of beggars ranging from wretched to excellent, the bodhisatta never bothers sizing up a person who calls at the door for some help or alms. The amount he gives is also not dependent on the class of beggar. This kind of completely indiscriminate offering is another characteristic of a bodhisatta. In respect of the nine remaining perfections, this example on giving should be applied with due alteration of details. Those not conversant with Pāḷi can get the essence of what the text says from the passage quoted above. These days there are some who wish for Buddhahood, and wisdom-oriented Buddhahood at that, though their
conduct barely qualifies them to become ordinary disciples. What characterizes them is the bold banner of craving-dependent deeds, which cry out for public recognition right now and yearn for glorious results hereafter. “Who ever does something for nothing?” these people are apt to protest. “To expect good results from a good deed is only natural.” But remember, a thing done without
expecting future rewards brings a greater reward than is imagined. More significantly, it amounts to the real practice of the perfections essential for enlightenment. A meritorious deed done with an ardent wish for good results brings relatively limited results and does not amount to fulfilling the perfections. Remember the example of fungus in seed-grain or pests in a plantation. Some say
that gradual maturity is the likely process, for enlightenment right now is not possible. So why should one not store up merit for better existences and greater prosperity? My reply is this: Small plants thrive just during the rainy season. Only one in a thousand or ten thousand among them might survive the long, dry, hot months till the next rainy season. Such a rare plant must be
extraordinarily robust and hardy to have struck its main root deep enough. Such rare plants obviously need not fear the severity of the climate after having passed three or four rainy seasons. By the same analogy, to achieve budding perfections is only possible when the Buddha’s teaching is still extant. Whatever little perfection one has achieved during this opportune period has very
little chance of surviving to be developed in the time of the next Buddha. Those sham deeds of merit will certainly lose their potential once the teaching has disappeared. Very few could survive the uncertainties of the intervening dark ages. During those dark ages, right view is lost to humanity and wrong views prevail. One who has acquired only sham deeds of merit falls into wrong views, and so their little potential of merit is soon gone. Imagine the fate of one who repeatedly falls into
wrong view for two, three, or more existences. This is the unstable nature of the merits of a person who has not struck roots deep down, who has not attained stability. Such perishing of budding merits is the rule with most beings. Innumerable existences have already passed in which they acquired some flimsy merits, only to be lost again by the next existence. This process of acquisition and perishing goes on in perpetuity for the overwhelming majority of beings. This is why the idea of
“gradual maturity” does not hold. It would be a great pity if one depends on such a mistaken idea and goes on hoping for the perfections while actually longing for the inexorable cycle of rebirth. The four conditions, the four root causes, and the six inclinations are the factors for declaring the Noblest Aspiration and for taking up the higher perfections. On declaring the Noblest Aspiration and receiving the assurance of future Buddhahood, the bodhisatta at once becomes endowed with the five powers (bala), the four special characteristics, the two qualifications of compassion (karunā) and skill in strategy (upāyakosalla), the four stages of maturity (bhūmi), the six inclinations (ajjhāsaya), etc. However, since what I have said so far should suffice to answer Maung Thaw’s question I shall not deal with any further details.
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